Materials database

High-carbon unalloyed spring steel. Near-eutectoid composition (0.70-0.80% C). Excellent elastic properties after hardening and tempering. Limited hardenability — effective oil quench diameter ≤12mm. Cost-effective for small/medium springs. Used for spring wire, clock springs, saw blades, retaining rings, and precision strip springs. ≈ AISI 1075.

High-carbon spring strip steel — C 0.70-0.80%. Between C67S (0.65-0.72%) and C85S (0.83-0.90%). Good fatigue strength and edge retention. Used for flat springs, leaf springs, saw blades, snap rings, and reed valves. Available as cold-rolled precision strip in hardened & tempered condition (HRC 58-62).

Highest-carbon standard unalloyed spring steel. 0.75-0.85% C gives maximum hardness (60+ HRC) among unalloyed grades but with increased brittleness. Limited hardenability — effective quench diameter ≤10mm. Used for high-hardness springs, saw blades, scrapers, and precision strip where maximum elastic limit is needed. ≈ AISI 1080.

Highest-carbon unalloyed spring strip steel — C 0.83-0.90%. Maximum achievable hardness (HRC 62-65) and fatigue strength in the cold-rolled spring strip series. Used for the most demanding flat spring applications where maximum hardness is critical: saw blades, scraper blades, precision springs, and high-frequency reed valves. Higher C than C67S (0.65-0.72%) and C75S (0.70-0.80%).

High-carbon unalloyed spring steel with 0.85–0.95% carbon. Achieves very high hardness (58–62 HRC) after quenching. Primarily used for flat springs, clock springs, saw blades, scraper blades, and cold-forming tools. Good wear resistance but limited toughness. The S suffix indicates suitability for spring applications per EN 10132-4.

Soft martensitic (supermartensitic) stainless steel with good corrosion resistance and high toughness. Low carbon prevents embrittlement. The standard material for hydraulic turbine runners, pump impellers, compressor components, and offshore valves.

ISO K10 cemented tungsten carbide with ~6% cobalt binder. The hardest standard WC-Co grade (92–93 HRA, ~1600 HV) with highest wear resistance but lowest toughness. Density ~14.9 g/cm³, TRS 1800–2200 MPa, elastic modulus ~620 GPa. Fine to submicron grain. Applications: finish turning and boring of cast iron, non-ferrous metals, hardened steel; PCB drilling; wire drawing dies; seal rings; wear parts with no impact. ANSI C2/C3, China YG6.

ISO K20 cemented tungsten carbide with ~8% cobalt binder. The most widely used general-purpose WC-Co grade, balancing wear resistance and toughness. Hardness 91–92 HRA (~1450–1550 HV), density ~14.7 g/cm³, TRS 2200–2600 MPa. Medium grain. Applications: general turning, milling, drilling of cast iron, non-ferrous metals; end mills; wear parts with light impact; mining bits. ANSI C2, China YG8.

ISO K40 cemented tungsten carbide with ~15% cobalt binder. Toughest standard WC-Co grade with highest impact resistance but lowest hardness. Hardness 89–90 HRA (~1200–1350 HV), density ~14.0 g/cm³, TRS 2800–3400 MPa. Coarse grain. Applications: heavy roughing of cast iron; cold heading dies; mining and rock drilling; punches and stamping tools; percussion bits; parts subject to heavy impact. ANSI C1/C11, China YG15.

ISO P20 cemented carbide with WC + TiC/TaC + Co. Designed for machining steel and steel castings. TiC addition provides crater wear resistance essential for steel cutting. Hardness 91–92 HRA, density ~12.0–13.0 g/cm³ (lower than K-grades due to TiC), TRS 1800–2200 MPa. Applications: general turning, milling, planing of carbon steel, alloy steel, tool steel, ferritic and martensitic stainless steel. ANSI C6, China YT15.

ISO M20 multi-purpose cemented carbide with WC + TiC + TaC + Co. Bridges the gap between K (cast iron) and P (steel) grades. Moderate crater wear resistance from TiC/TaC with better toughness than pure P-grades. Hardness 90–91 HRA, density ~13.0–14.0 g/cm³, TRS 2000–2400 MPa. Applications: stainless steel (austenitic), heat-resistant alloys, ductile cast iron, mixed production. ANSI C7, China YW2.

Plain carbon quenched & tempered steel — 0.57-0.65% C. Highest practical C for Q&T without excessive brittleness. Good surface hardness (HRC 55-60) with adequate core toughness. Modern designation C60E (EN 10083-2), traditional Ck60 still widely used. Used for crankshafts, connecting rods, rail wheels, axles, and machine tool spindles where alloy cost is not justified.

Cyclic Olefin Copolymer — an amorphous, glass-clear thermoplastic made by copolymerization of norbornene with ethylene. Combines the transparency of glass (>92% light transmission) with excellent dimensional stability, low water absorption (<0.01%), and high biocompatibility. Outstanding barrier to moisture (10× better than PET) but poor oxygen barrier. Tg adjustable 70-180°C via comonomer ratio. Primary applications: medical/pharmaceutical (pre-filled syringes, vials, blister packs — replaces glass), optical films for LCD/OLED displays, diagnostic microfluidic devices, high-barrier food packaging, FDA-approved USP Class VI grades.

Cobalt-28Chromium-6Molybdenum investment casting alloy for surgical implants. The standard material for orthopedic hip and knee joint replacements since the 1970s. Excellent biocompatibility, wear resistance (metal-on-metal bearings), and corrosion resistance from passive Cr oxide layer. Also used in dental prosthetics (crowns, bridges, denture frameworks). Typically produced by lost-wax (investment) casting, often followed by HIP to eliminate porosity. ISO designation: ISO 5832-4.

Crucible Particle Metallurgy stainless cold work steel — virtually identical to Böhler M390 and Carpenter CTS-204P. 1.9% C, 20% Cr, 4% V, 1% Mo. The highest corrosion resistance of any PM tool steel while maintaining 58–62 HRC hardness and outstanding edge retention. Considered the current benchmark for premium stainless knife steel. Also used for plastic injection mold cavities (mirror polish + corrosion resistance) and food processing cutting tools.

Crucible Particle Metallurgy high-speed steel with exceptionally high vanadium (4%) and carbon (1.42%) content. Combines the red hardness of M2 HSS with wear resistance approaching carbide. PM process ensures uniform fine carbide distribution impossible in conventional melting. Hardened to 62–66 HRC. Used for end mills, broaches, hobs, form tools, cold heading dies, slitter knives and applications where conventional HSS wears too fast but carbide is too brittle. Popular in knife community for extreme edge retention.

Crucible Particle Metallurgy martensitic stainless tool steel with extreme vanadium content. C 2.3%, Cr 14.0%, V 9.0%, Mo 1.0%. Highest wear resistance among PM stainless steels. Hardness 56–60 HRC. Corrosion resistant. Applications: premium knife blades, plastic injection screws/barrels with glass-filled or mineral-filled compounds, industrial cutting tools, food processing blades.

Phosphorus-deoxidized copper (DHP = Deoxidized High Phosphorus, 0.015-0.040% P). THE material for copper plumbing tubes worldwide (EN 1057). P prevents hydrogen embrittlement during brazing/welding — essential for plumbing/HVAC joints. Slightly lower electrical conductivity than Cu-ETP (85% IACS vs 101%) due to P content. UNS C12200. Used for plumbing tubes, heating systems, solar thermal, refrigeration tubes, and architectural roofing.

Electrolytic Tough Pitch copper — the most widely used copper grade worldwide. 99.90% Cu min with controlled oxygen content (~0.02-0.04%). Electrical conductivity ≥100% IACS. Used for busbars, motor windings, transformer coils, electrical conductors, roofing, and radiators. Caution: hydrogen embrittlement risk in reducing atmospheres above 370°C.

Electrolytic tough pitch copper — 99.90% Cu minimum with 0.02-0.04% oxygen from electrolytic refining. The standard electrical-grade copper worldwide (IACS 101% conductivity). Highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any commercial copper grade. Easy to cold form, hot form, and solder/braze. Cannot be welded in oxidizing atmosphere (embrittlement from oxygen). Used for electrical busbars, wire, cable, transformer windings, circuit boards, heat exchangers, roofing, and plumbing. ASTM: C11000, UNS C11000.

Oxygen-free high-conductivity copper. 99.95% Cu min with max 0.001% O — eliminates hydrogen embrittlement risk during welding/brazing in reducing atmospheres. Used for vacuum electronics, waveguides, particle accelerator components, cryogenic systems, and applications where welding in H2-containing atmospheres is required.

Silver-bearing copper — Ag 0.08-0.12% addition to high-conductivity copper. Ag raises the recrystallization/softening temperature by ~100°C without reducing electrical conductivity (>100% IACS). Used for electric motor commutators, soldered heat exchangers, and any Cu application requiring soldering/brazing without softening. Also welding electrodes and lead frames.

Cast nickel aluminium bronze — the premier marine copper alloy. 10% Al + 5% Fe + 5% Ni provides exceptional strength (UTS >600 MPa), outstanding seawater corrosion/erosion/cavitation resistance, and excellent anti-galling properties against stainless steel. Heat treatable for enhanced corrosion resistance. Retains properties at cryogenic temperatures. Used for marine valve bodies, pump impellers, propeller hubs, gear wheels, heavy-duty bearings, and offshore structural components. ASTM: C95500/C95800, BS: AB2.

The premium aluminium bronze grade. Exceptional combination of high strength (700+ MPa), excellent corrosion resistance (especially seawater), and wear resistance. Used for ship propellers, heavy-duty bearings and bushings, valve bodies, pump impellers, and offshore platform components.