Materials database

Medium-high carbon unalloyed steel between C45 and C55. Good strength and wear resistance after QT. Used for springs, axles, shafts, coupling parts, and machine components where moderate hardness is sufficient without alloy steel cost.

High-carbon unalloyed Q&T steel — 0.47-0.55% C. Higher strength than C45E at the expense of reduced weldability and toughness. Modern designation for Ck50. Suitable for induction hardening to HRC 55-60. Used for heavy-duty shafts, rail wheels, clutch plates, and springs where maximum unalloyed strength is needed. Also used for agricultural equipment and wear parts.

Unalloyed special steel with controlled sulfur (R grade, S 0.020–0.040%) and 0.50% carbon for improved machinability. Same base composition as C50E but with intentional sulfur for better chip formation. Used for high-volume machined components requiring good strength: shafts, gears, spindles, and wear-resistant machine parts.

Medium-high carbon unalloyed steel. Higher strength than C45 with reduced weldability. Used for rail wheels, agricultural equipment, springs, hand tools, and wear-resistant parts. Often used for induction-hardened components.

High-carbon unalloyed Q&T steel — 0.52-0.60% C. Modern designation for Ck55. Good strength after Q&T (UTS 800-950 MPa) and excellent surface hardness after induction hardening (HRC 56-60). Used for rail wheels, crankshafts, heavy-duty shafts, and wear parts.

Unalloyed special steel with controlled sulfur (R grade, S 0.020–0.040%) and 0.55% carbon for improved machinability. Same base composition as C55E but with intentional sulfur for better chip formation. Used for high-volume machined components requiring moderate to high strength: shafts, axles, gears, and wear-resistant machine parts.

High-carbon unalloyed quenching and tempering steel. High hardness and strength after heat treatment but difficult to weld. Used for springs, hand tools (screwdrivers, pliers), agricultural blades, wear parts, and railway components.

Unalloyed special steel with controlled chemistry (E grade) and 0.60% carbon. Tighter P and S limits (max 0.025%) for improved consistency. High hardness achievable after quenching (HRC 55+). Difficult to weld due to high carbon content. Used for wheels, rims, toothed shafts, cylinders, axles, pins, springs, and wear-resistant components in vehicle and machinery manufacturing.

Unalloyed special steel with controlled sulfur (R grade, S 0.020–0.040%) and 0.60% carbon for improved machinability. Same base composition as C60E but with intentional sulfur for better chip formation. Higher strength than C50R. Used for springs, shafts, rail components, and wear-resistant parts requiring combined strength and machinability.

Medium-high carbon spring steel — C 0.65-0.72%. The E suffix denotes controlled S+P (<=0.025% each). Used for cold-rolled spring strip (EN 10132-4), spring wire (EN 10270-1), and flat springs. Lower C than C75S/C85S = better toughness and formability. Also used for circular saw blades, scrapers, and clips. Hardened & tempered to HRC 55-60.

Unalloyed cold-rolled spring strip steel — THE standard flat spring material. 0.65% C gives high hardness after hardening (HRC 60+). Very good fatigue properties when properly heat-treated. Much cheaper than alloyed spring steels (51CrV4, 55Cr3). Used for flat springs, circlips/snap rings, saw blades, scrapers, reed valves, and leaf springs in small dimensions.

High-carbon unalloyed steel for springs and cutting tools with 0.65–0.75% carbon. Good combination of hardness and toughness compared to higher-carbon grades. Used for coil springs, leaf springs, saw blades, chisels, and shear blades. Can achieve 50–56 HRC after proper heat treatment. The S suffix indicates suitability for spring applications per EN 10132-4.

High-carbon unalloyed spring steel. Near-eutectoid composition (0.70-0.80% C). Excellent elastic properties after hardening and tempering. Limited hardenability — effective oil quench diameter ≤12mm. Cost-effective for small/medium springs. Used for spring wire, clock springs, saw blades, retaining rings, and precision strip springs. ≈ AISI 1075.

High-carbon spring strip steel — C 0.70-0.80%. Between C67S (0.65-0.72%) and C85S (0.83-0.90%). Good fatigue strength and edge retention. Used for flat springs, leaf springs, saw blades, snap rings, and reed valves. Available as cold-rolled precision strip in hardened & tempered condition (HRC 58-62).

Highest-carbon standard unalloyed spring steel. 0.75-0.85% C gives maximum hardness (60+ HRC) among unalloyed grades but with increased brittleness. Limited hardenability — effective quench diameter ≤10mm. Used for high-hardness springs, saw blades, scrapers, and precision strip where maximum elastic limit is needed. ≈ AISI 1080.

Highest-carbon unalloyed spring strip steel — C 0.83-0.90%. Maximum achievable hardness (HRC 62-65) and fatigue strength in the cold-rolled spring strip series. Used for the most demanding flat spring applications where maximum hardness is critical: saw blades, scraper blades, precision springs, and high-frequency reed valves. Higher C than C67S (0.65-0.72%) and C75S (0.70-0.80%).

High-carbon unalloyed spring steel with 0.85–0.95% carbon. Achieves very high hardness (58–62 HRC) after quenching. Primarily used for flat springs, clock springs, saw blades, scraper blades, and cold-forming tools. Good wear resistance but limited toughness. The S suffix indicates suitability for spring applications per EN 10132-4.

Soft martensitic (supermartensitic) stainless steel with good corrosion resistance and high toughness. Low carbon prevents embrittlement. The standard material for hydraulic turbine runners, pump impellers, compressor components, and offshore valves.

Plain carbon quenched & tempered steel — 0.57-0.65% C. Highest practical C for Q&T without excessive brittleness. Good surface hardness (HRC 55-60) with adequate core toughness. Modern designation C60E (EN 10083-2), traditional Ck60 still widely used. Used for crankshafts, connecting rods, rail wheels, axles, and machine tool spindles where alloy cost is not justified.

Phosphorus-deoxidized copper (DHP = Deoxidized High Phosphorus, 0.015-0.040% P). THE material for copper plumbing tubes worldwide (EN 1057). P prevents hydrogen embrittlement during brazing/welding — essential for plumbing/HVAC joints. Slightly lower electrical conductivity than Cu-ETP (85% IACS vs 101%) due to P content. UNS C12200. Used for plumbing tubes, heating systems, solar thermal, refrigeration tubes, and architectural roofing.

Electrolytic Tough Pitch copper — the most widely used copper grade worldwide. 99.90% Cu min with controlled oxygen content (~0.02-0.04%). Electrical conductivity ≥100% IACS. Used for busbars, motor windings, transformer coils, electrical conductors, roofing, and radiators. Caution: hydrogen embrittlement risk in reducing atmospheres above 370°C.

Oxygen-free high-conductivity copper. 99.95% Cu min with max 0.001% O — eliminates hydrogen embrittlement risk during welding/brazing in reducing atmospheres. Used for vacuum electronics, waveguides, particle accelerator components, cryogenic systems, and applications where welding in H2-containing atmospheres is required.

Silver-bearing copper — Ag 0.08-0.12% addition to high-conductivity copper. Ag raises the recrystallization/softening temperature by ~100°C without reducing electrical conductivity (>100% IACS). Used for electric motor commutators, soldered heat exchangers, and any Cu application requiring soldering/brazing without softening. Also welding electrodes and lead frames.

The premium aluminium bronze grade. Exceptional combination of high strength (700+ MPa), excellent corrosion resistance (especially seawater), and wear resistance. Used for ship propellers, heavy-duty bearings and bushings, valve bodies, pump impellers, and offshore platform components.